缅北禁地

The material posted here was provided to the Division for the Advancement of Women by the Government in response to the Secretary-General's Questionnaire on Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action. It has been made available in electronic format from the form received. In cases where it was not possible to reproduce charts and tables supplied, these can be obtained by contacting the Division for the Advancement of Women directly.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Women and Poverty
3. Women and Health
4. Women and the Economy
5. Women and the Media
6. Women and Armed Conflict
7. Violence Against Women
8. Human Rights of Women
9. Women Science and Technology
10. Education and Training
11. The Girl Child
12. Women and the Environment
13. Women in Power and Decision Making
14. Institutional Structures for the Advancement of Women

A total of 185 countries including Kenya met in Beijing in August/September 1995 to discuss and plan for long term objectives and goals of equality, development and peace that were going to be the basis for policy and planning efforts for the betterment of women's lives to the year 2000.

This Platform presents Kenyas strategic objectives, activities, institutional framework and implementation matrix for meeting the Beijing commitments at national and district levels. The Platform comprise of Poverty, Health, Economy, Media, Armed Conflict, Violence Against Women, Human Rights of Women, Science and Technology, Education and Training, the Girl Child, Environment, and Women in Power and Decision Making and Institutional Structures for the Advancement of Women programmes.

Since independence in 1963, the Government of Kenya set its major development goal as that of eliminating poverty, ignorance and disease. This was seen as a key ingredient in building an economically strong and prosperous nation, with cohesive society in which all people (women and men) have opportunity to realise their full potential. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Kenya experienced commendable economic growth compared to other African countries. Between 1964 to 1973, GDP grew on average by 6.6%. This good performance has not, however, been sustained. From mid 1970s, economic performance has been erratical and in all not very good. The GDP growth rate declined to an average of 5.2% per annum during 1974-1979 and between 1980 to 1989 averaged 4.1% dropping steadily to 2.4% in 1990.

Despite the modest recovery of economic growth recorded in the last three years, the plight of many Kenyans continue to deteriorate. The average growth of GDP at factor cost (1982 prices) during 1991-95 was 2.2% per annum while estimated population growth has been above 3% per annum. In terms of constant prices, GDP per capita has barely grown in the last five years. Even these low figures disguise very considerable inequities in income and wealth. Poverty is reflected in high levels of food insecurity and unemployment, low personal incomes and wages as well as lack of access to basic needs and services such as health, education, water and sanitation. Women have limited access to economic resources including land, credit, adequate training, support services and participate minimally in the decision making process. They lack access to employment opportunities and earn less for equal work as compared to men.

In the last two decades, close to half of Kenyans lived below the absolute poverty line. Absolute poverty defined as "the cost of food expenditure necessary to attain a recommended food intake (2250 kcal a day) and a modest allowance for non-food items" remained constant at 47% between 1982 and 1992. However, for female headed households, prevalence of poverty increased from 47% in 1982 to 53% in 1992. In spite of the constant proportions, the number living in poverty has been rising and was estimated at 11.5 million from 1994 Welfare Monitoring Survey.

Besides the fact that women are more vulnerable and susceptible to poverty, they are also more exposed to the negative impacts of economic liberalisation policies. The reforms introduced as part of the structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) such as cost-sharing and cost recovery in health, education and water, while deemed necessary from a sustainable management perspective rendered these services inaccessible to most women who are the majority among the poorer segments of the community. This has since exacerbated the extent and depth of poverty. Sectors and professions that women had made significant gains have been subject to redundancies and closures of the enterprises arising from trade liberalisation, removal of price controls and subsidies thus worsening their situation.

Whereas the country experienced mixed results in the area of economic performance, tremendous progress was made for both gender in basic social services from independence through 1970s and 1980s. Social indicators for both women and men in areas such as health, education, water and sanitation improved greatly. Women's poverty related to absence of economic opportunities and autonomy, access to economic resources (credit, land ownership and inheritance) and participation in decision making saw some remarkable progress as more women joined modern sector employment.

The strategies to tackle poverty among women proposed in this plan of action are supposed to reverse the recent downward trend while addressing the gender imbalance simultaneously.

• Review, adopt and maintain macro-economic policies and development strategies that address the needs and efforts of women in poverty
• Revise Laws and administrative practices to ensure women's equal rights and access to economic resources.
• Provide women with access to savings and credit mechanisms and institutions
• Develop gender-based methodologies and conduct research to address the feminisation of poverty

2.3.1 Strategic Objective 1: Macro-economic policies and strategies that address the needs and efforts of women in poverty.

i. At national level

Women have different and unequal access to and use of basic health resources, including primary health services for the prevention and treatment of childhood diseases, malnutrition, anaemia, diarrhoeal diseases, communicable diseases, malaria, tuberculosis and other tropical diseases. Women also have unequal opportunities for the protection, promotion and maintenance of their health.

Discrimination against girls endangers their current and future health and well-being. Conditions that force girls into early marriage, pregnancy and child-bearing and subject them to harmful practices, such as female genital mutilation, pose grave health risks. Adolescent girls need, but do not often have, access to necessary health and nutrition services as they mature. Counselling and access to sexual and reproductive health information and services for adolescents are still inadequate or lacking.

The health indicators for Kenya have in the past shown positive development. Life expectancy in 1989 was 59 years on average and 63.2 for women. Maternal mortality is now estimated at 365 per 100,000 live births. Infant and child mortality had declined to 60 and 90 per thousand live births in 1993. Total fertility rate rose remarkably from 5.3 in 1962 to 7.9 in 1979 before declining to 5.4 in 1993 as Kenya entered a demographic transition.

The positive trend is threatened and may start to reverse. Budgetary provisions by GoK are insufficient to provide a minimum essential health care package for all Kenyans. Inflation and depreciation of the Kenya shilling have made private health care out of reach of most Kenyans. The plight of the poor, the majority of whom are women and children has been made worse by introduction of user fees in government health facilities.

The following strategies and actions will have to be undertaken to sustain the earlier gains that were made and where possible make further advance.

• Increase women's access throughout the life cycle to appropriate, affordable and quality health care information and related services
• Strengthen preventive programmes that promote women's health
• Undertake gender-sensitive initiatives that address sexually transmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS, and sexual and reproductive health issues
• Promote research and disseminate information on women's health
• Increase resources and monitor follow-up for women's health

3.3.1 Strategic Objective 1: Increase women's access throughout the life cycle to appropriate, affordable and quality health care information and related services

i.At national level

There are considerable differences in women's and men's access to and opportunities to exert power over economic structures. Women are virtually absent from or are poorly represented in economic decision-making, including the formulation of financial, monetary, commercial and other economic policies, as well as tax systems and rules governing pay.

Kenya begun to seriously implement structural adjustment programme in 1994. The liberalisation of the economy has involved: transfer of government corporations to the private sector; the downsizing of the state through surrender of its social welfare responsibilities to the private sector; and promotion of civil society organization (NGOs and CBOs) as contractors to the national state, international donor agencies and the market sector. The structural adjustment programmes have had negative effects on the poor and vulnerable, particularly women and children.

Furthermore, women constitute more than half of the population of Kenya and make a significant contribution to the development of the economy. However, their role has not been properly addressed and emphasized. Women still constitute a small percentage of people in productive self-employment as well as those employed in the modern sector.

• Promote women's economic rights and independence, including access to employment, appropriate working conditions and control over economic and income generating resources.
• Facilitate womens' equal access to resources, employment, markets and trade.
• Provide business services, training and access to markets, information and technology, particularly to low income women.
• Strengthen women's economic capacity and commercial networks.
• Eliminate occupational segregation and all forms of employment discrimination. Develop and implement employment policies and income generation strategies that address specific needs of women at macro level.
• Promote harmonisation of work and family responsibilities for women and men.
• Adequately quantify the participation of women in the economy

4.3.1 Strategic Objective 1: Promote women's economic rights and independence, including access to employment, appropriate working conditions and control over economic resources.

i. At national level

(a) Enact and enforce legislation to guarantee the rights of women and men to equal access to employment, pay for equal work of equal value and re-entry of women to the labour market after childbearing.

(b) Promote womens participation in formulation of policies and definition of structures through ministries and other development agencies.

(c) Ensure women equal access to economic resources - land, credit, inheritance etc.- through legislation and administrative reforms.

(d) Revise and implement national policies that support the traditional savings, credit and lending mechanisms for women.

(e) Adjust employment policies and laws to facilitate the restructuring of work patterns in order to promote the sharing of family responsibilities, eliminate discrimination based on sex in the labour market.

(f) Review and amend laws governing the operation of financial institutions to ensure that they provide services to women and men on an equal basis.

ii. At district level

(g) Promote gender-sensitive policies and measures to empower women as equal partners with men in technical, managerial and entrepreneurial fields.

4.3.2 Strategic Objective 2: Facilitate womens' equal access to resources, employment, markets and trade.

i. At national level

(a) Increase the proportion of women extension workers and other government personnel who provide technical assistance or administer economic programmes - participation. Increase the participation of women, including women entrepreneurs, in advisory boards and other forums to enable women entrepreneurs to contribute to the formulation and review of policies and programmes being developed by ministries and banking institutions.

(b) Ensure equal access for women to effective job training, retraining, counselling and placement services that are not initiated to traditional employment areas.

(c) Ensure that women's concerns are included in public investment programmes for economic infrastructure.

(d) Mobilise the banking sector to increase lending and refinancing through incentives and the development of intermediaries that serve the needs of women entrepreneurs and producers in both rural and urban areas.

(f) Repeal relevant parts of the Employment Act Cap 226 (No. 2/1976) so as to enable women to work on night shifts and other prhibited places of work.

(g) Educate women on employment and labour laws and their rights in their participation in their places of work.

ii. At district level

(h) Promote and support women's self-employment, development of small enterprises, access to productive resources, credit services and mechanisms that promote women's output. Facilitate transition from informal to formal sectors.

4.3.3 Strategic Objective 3: Provide business services, training and access to markets, information and technology, particularly to low income women.

i. At national level

(a) Provide infrastructure to ensure equal market access, training and retraining in new technologies etc. outreach programmes to inform low income women of existing opportunities and create non-discriminating support services, including investment funds for women's business.

ii. At district level

(b) Disseminate information about successful women entrepreneurs and facilitate networking and exchange of information.

(c) Provide affordable support services, such as high quality, flexible and affordable child-care services, that take into account the needs of working men and women.

4.3.4 Strategic Objective 4: Strengthen women's economic capacity and commercial networks.

i. At national level

(a) Adopt policies that support organizations targeting on women to enable them to provide services to women entrepreneurs in rural and urban areas.

(b) Integrate gender perspectives into all economic restructuring and structural adjustment policies.

ii. At district level

(c) Promote training, business services including marketing and technical and commercial links and joint ventures among women entrepreneurs.

(d) Invest capital and develop investment portfolio's to finance women's business enterprises.

4.3.5 Strategic Objective 5: Eliminate occupational segregation and all forms of employment discrimination.

i. At national level

(a) Encourage equal treatment in work place, output etc. and discourage discrimination based on sex etc.

(b) Set specific target dates for eliminating all forms of child labour that are contrary to accepted international standards.

4.3.6 Strategic Objective 6: Promote harmonisation of work and family responsibilities for women and men.

i. At national level

(a) Promote policies that harmonise work and family responsibilities.

(b) Ensure that all forms of work can be freely chosen by men and women through enactment of appropriate policies and legislation.

(c) Enact and enforce laws against sexual and other forms of harassment in all workplaces.

ii. At district level

(d) Initiate educational programmes through media campaigns and school and community education to raise awareness on gender equality and non-stereotyped gender roles of women and men.

(i) At national level

(a) Conduct research and surveys to address womens employment and income generating activities.

(b) Carry out studies using gender-based variables that will give results that are specific to womens participation in the labour force.

Office of the Vice President and Ministry of Planning and National Development, Ministries of Finance, Culture and Social Services, and Employment and Manpower Development; Maendeleo Ya Wanawake Organization, Womens Finance Trust, donors and communities.

"Today, more women work in the media, but few make policy decisions. Although progress has been made in collection and dissemination of information relating to women's issues both in quality and in content, mass media still gives a distorted picture of the women, their role and contribution to communities and the nation. Relying on stereotyped images, they tend to reinforce out-dated views".

Appreciable progress has been made in the collection and dissemination of information relating to women's issues both in quantity and content.

Radio and television is dominated by the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation and Kenya Television Network. These communication channels have potential, but are owned by men and "used" by women, devote limited time to the relevant issues affecting women.

Kenya has 3 daily newspapers, 3 in English and 2 in Kiswahili, all of them published in Nairobi but having good national distribution channels. These also bear limited representation of women.

• Increase the participation and access of women to expression and decision making in and through the media and new technologies of communication.
• Promote a balanced and non-stereotyped portrayal of women in the media

5.3.1 Strategic Objective 1: Increase the participation and access of women to expression and decision-making in and through the media and new technologies of communication.

i. At national level

(a)Support women's education, training and employment to promote and ensure women's equal access to all areas and levels of the media.

(b)Support research in all aspects of women and the media so as to define areas needing attention and action.

(c)review existing media policies with a view of integrating gender perspectives.

(d)Promote women's full and equal participation in the media, including management programming, education, training and research.

(e)Aim at gender balance in the appointment of women and men to all advisory, management, regulatory and monitoring bodies.

(f)Encourage media bodies to increase the number of programmes for and by women to see to it that women's needs and concerns are properly addressed.

(g)Encourage and recognise women's media networks as a means for dissemination of information and the exchange of views.

ii. At district level

(h)Support women groups active in all media work and systems of communication.

(i)Create networks among and develop information programmes for non-governmental organizations in order to recognise the specific needs of women in the media, and facilitate the increased participation of women in communication.

(j)Encourage the media industry and media training institutions to develop, in appropriate languages, traditional, indigenous and other ethnic forms of media, such as story-telling, drama, poetry and song, reflecting their cultures, and utilise these forms of communication to disseminate information on development and social issues.

(k)Encourage the establishment of media watch groups that can monitor the media and consult with the media to ensure that women's needs and concerns are properly reflected.

(l)Encourage the use of communication systems, including new technologies, as a means of strengthening women's participating in democratic processes.

(m)Train women to make greater use of information technology for communication.

i. At national level

(a)Develop and support the development of and finance, as appropriate, alternative media and use all means of communication to disseminate information to and about women and their concerns, professional guidelines and codes of conduct and other forms of self-regulation to promote the presentation of non-stereotyped images of women.

(b)Establish professional guidelines and codes of conduct that address violent, degrading or pornographic materials concerning women in the media including advertising.

(c)Encourage gender sensitive training by media professionals, including media owners and managers to encourage the creation and use of non-stereotyped balanced and diverse images of women in the media.

(d)Increase women's participation in all levels of decision-making in the media.

ii. At district level

(d)Promote extensive campaigns, making use of public and private educational programmes to disseminate information about and increase awareness of the human rights of women.

(e)Produce and disseminate media materials on women leaders.

(f)Develop a gender perspective on all issues of concern to communities, consumers and civil society.

(g)Support the development of and finance, as appropriate, alternative media and the use of all means of communication to disseminate information to and about women and their concerns.

Office of the President-Administration, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Attorney Generals Chambers, Kenya News Agency, Print Media - Nation, East African Standard, Office of the Vice President and Ministry of Planning and National Development. Lobby Groups, CBOs, NGOs, Media Womens Associations and Donors.

Women are affected in many ways during war or armed conflict. Though they may have no role in the decisions leading to such conflicts and seldom are combatants themselves, women are often left to maintain families when social and economic life is disrupted. Women often are also victims of torture, disappearance and systematic rape as a weapon of war.

Due to political instability in neighbouring countries, there has been an influx of refugees in Kenya. In December 1993, there were about 381,990 refugees in Kenya. Although the data on refugees has not been dissagregated by gender, it is a known fact that at least 80% are women and children.

In some refugee camps, as many as 90% of the population are women and girls over 15 years. In refuge, many women are forced to assume new roles as heads of households and sole income earners. Most of the women are from rural areas and suffer from the attendant problem of large families, poverty, limited literacy, lack of productive skills and poor health.

• Increase the participation of women in conflict resolution at decision-making levels and protect women living in situations of armed and other conflicts or under foreign occupation.
• Reduce excessive military expenditures and control the viability of armaments.
• Promote non-violent forms of conflict resolution and reduce the incidence of human rights abuse in conflict situations.
• Promote women's contribution to fostering a culture of peace.
• Provide protection, assistance and training to refugee women, other displaced women in need of international protection and internally displaced.

6.3.1 Strategic objective 1: Increase the participation of women in conflict resolution at decision-making levels and protect women living in situations of armed and other conflicts or under foreign occupation.

i. At national level

(a)Promote equal participation of women and equal opportunities for women to participate in all forums and peace activities at all levels, particularly at the decision-making levels.

(b)Integrate a gender perspective in the resolution of armed or other conflicts and foreign occupation.

ii. At district level

(c)Provide appropriate training to district officers and other administrators in handling cases involving rape, forced pregnancy in situations of armed conflict, indecent assault and other forms of violence against women in armed conflicts, and integrate a gender perspective into their work.

i. At national level

(a)Increase the conversion of military resources to development and peaceful purposes.

(b)Investigate and punish members of the police security and armed forces and others who perpetuate acts of violence against women.

(c)Address the dangers of armed conflict.

(d)Combat illicit arms trafficking, violence, crime, production and use of and trafficking in illicit drugs, and trafficking in women and children.

ii. At district level

(e)Recognise the leading role that women have played in the peace movement and involve them at all levels of decision-making.

i. At national level

(a)Consider the ratification of or accession to international instruments containing provisions related to the protection of women and children in armed conflicts.

(b)Respect fully the norms of international humanitarian law in armed conflicts and take all measures required for the protection of women and children, in particular against rape, forced prostitution and any other forms of indecent assault.

ii.At district level

(c) Strengthen the role of women and ensure equal representation of women at all decision-making levels in national and international institutions which may make or influence policy with regard to the matters related to peace-keeping, preventive diplomacy and related activities and in all stages of peace mediation and negotiations.

i. At national level

(a)Develop and disseminate research on the physical, psychological, economic and social effects of armed conflicts on women, particularly young women and girls, with a view to developing policies and programmes to address the consequences of conflicts.

(b)Encourage development of peace research, involving the participation of women, to examine the impact of armed conflict on women and children and the nature and contribution of women's participation in national, regional and international peace movements.

(c)Carry out research and identify innovative mechanisms for containing violence and for conflict resolution for public dissemination and for use by women and men.

ii. At district level

(d)Carry out education and training programmes on peace and conflict resolution, reconciliation and tolerance particularly for young women.

(e)Consider establishing educational programmes and exchange programmes for girls and boys to foster a culture of peace, focusing on conflict resolution by non-violent means and the promotion of tolerance.

i.At national level

(a)Take steps to ensure that women are fully involved in the planning, design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all short-term and long-term projects and programmes providing assistance to refugee women.

(b)Offer adequate protection and assistance to displaced women and children and, when appropriate, facilitate their return or resettlement.

(c)Take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women and girls in order to ensure equal access to appropriate and adequate food, water and shelter, education, and social and health services, including reproductive health care and maternity care services to combat tropical disease.

(d)Facilitate the availability of educational ,materials in the appropriate language in emergency situations also in order to minimise disruptions of schooling among refugee and displaced children.

(e)Ensure equal access and equal treatment of women and men in refugee determination procedures and the granting of asylum.

ii.At district level

(f)Promote the self-reliant capacities of refugee women, other displaced women and internally displaced women and provide programmes for women, particularly young women, in leadership and decision making within refugee and returnee communities.

(g)Ensure that the human rights of refugee and displaced women are protected and that refugee and displaced women are made aware of these rights, ensure that the vital importance of family reunification is recognised.

(h)Provide as appropriate, women who have been determined refugees within access to vocational/professional training programmes, including language training, small scale enterprise development training and planning and counselling on all forms of violence against women.

(i)Raise public awareness of the contribution made by refugee women in their countries of resettlement, promote understanding of their human rights and of their needs and abilities and encourage mutual understanding and acceptance through educational programmes promoting cross-cultural and interracial harmony.

Violence against women is a global problem. Historically, men have dominated women and discriminated against them. women's lack of access to legal information, aid and protection, the lack of laws and inadequate efforts by public authorities to enforce existing laws in the same cases increase violence against women. cultural patterns that perpetuate women's lower status also contribute to violence against women. The media's treatment of women is another contributing factor.

The problem of violence against women in Kenya has to be understood within a historical and cultural perspective. traditionally, partriachal domination was the norm and hence men were recognised as having a right to chastise their wives. Women have been exposed to violence simply because of their gender. Rape, female circumcision, wife beating as well as exploitation and underpayment of women and girls have been identified as some of the most common examples of violence against women in Kenya. Violence seriously stigmatises the victims and damages them physically, mentally and socially. The effects are long lasting and far reaching in that women, being the main food producers for families become unable to effectively continue their roles due to the effects of these inhuman acts.

The bill which was intended to criminalize wife beating was tabled in Parliament and thrown out. Parliament considered the issue of wife beating as domestic noting that the state should not be seen to intrude upon the domestic affairs of its citizens.

Despite the stiff penalties for rape and defilement, the two offences still abound. Some violence have also been hard to punish due to failure to fit the categories of offences under the Penal Code.

The following strategies and actions are therefore proposed:

• Take integrated measures to prevent and eliminate violence against women.
• Study the causes and consequences of violence against women and the effectiveness of preventive measures.
• Eliminate trafficking in women and assist victims of violence due to prostitution and trafficking.

i.At national level

Women's rights, even where guaranteed by law, are often not achieved fully. Although Kenya ratified the CEDAW in 1984 prior to the women's conference held in Nairobi in 1985, persistent cultural and customary practices have continued to deny women some of their fundamental rights as guaranteed by the Kenyan Constitution.

The Kenyan constitution in its Chapter V guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms to all irrespective of race, tribe, place of origin, residence or other local connexion, political opinions, colour creed or sex. However, persistent cultural and customary practices have continued to deny women some of their fundamental rights guaranteed in the constitution. Statutes passed in disregard of or without a thorough understanding of operative and very influential customary legal norms result in complex conflicts.

The legal and socio-cultural issues that need to be addressed to further improve the status of women are in the areas of family law, divorce and maintenance, matrimonial property, succession, education, training, employment and reproduction rights. In the eighties, concerted efforts had been made to resolve conflicts of different operative legal regimes, albeit with limited success. In 1993, the Government established a Task Force to review all laws that conflict with the fundamental rights of women.

The following strategies and actions are therefore proposed to address the issues of womens rights:

• Promote and protect the human rights of women, through the full implementation of all human rights, especially the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.
• Ensure equality and non-discrimination under the law and in practice.
• Achieve legal literacy.

In Kenya and many third world countries, there exists a serious disparity in the number of girls enrolled in academic and technical institutions vis a vis the number of boys. For example in 1992, women accounted for only 30% of the students enrolled in institutions of technology. The University Engineering class of 1992 had less than 10% women. at the family level, men are encouraged to tackle sciences because they are believed to be more intelligent. Yet women can also do well in science if given an opportunity to develop their capacities. In practice, these capacities are inhibited by the traditional portrayal of women as unsuitable for science.

• To involve women scientists in decision making on policy and science education and encourage women to study science and technology.
• To sensitise the public and women in particular on the implications of science and technology in their daily lives.
• Encourage women, especially young girls, to enter new fields of science and technology which offer better job opportunities and career prospects.